How Salt Melts Ice and Snow

If you live in an area with a cold and icy winter, you have probably experienced salt on sidewalks and roads. This is because salt is used to melt the ice and snow and keep it from refreezing. Salt is also used to make homemade ice cream. In both cases, the salt works by lowering the melting or freezing point of water. The effect is termed freezing point depression. How Freezing Point Depression Works When you add salt to water, you introduce dissolved foreign particles into the water. The freezing point of water becomes lower as more particles are added until the point where the salt stops dissolving. For a solution of table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) in water, this temperature is -21 C (-6 F) under controlled lab conditions. In the real world, on a real sidewalk, sodium chloride can melt ice only down to about -9 C (15 F). Colligative Properties Freezing point depression is a colligative property of water. A colligative property is one which depends on the number of particles in a substance. All liquid solvents with dissolved particles (solutes) demonstrate colligative properties. Other colligative properties include boiling point elevation, vapor pressure lowering, and osmotic pressure. More Particles Mean More Melting Power Sodium chloride isnt the only salt used for de-icing, nor is it necessarily the best choice. Sodium chloride dissolves into two types of particles: one sodium ion and one chloride ion per sodium chloride molecule. A compound that yields more ions into a water solution would lower the freezing point of water more than salt. For example, calcium chloride (CaCl2) dissolves into three ions (one of calcium and two of chloride) and lowers the freezing point of water more than sodium chloride. Salts Used to Melt Ice Here are some common de-icing compounds, as well as their chemical formulas, temperature range, advantages, and disadvantages: Name Formula Lowest Practical Temp Pros Cons Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 -7 C(20 F) Fertilizer Damages concrete Calcium chloride CaCl2 -29 C(-20 F) Melts ice faster than sodium chloride Attracts moisture, surfaces slippery below -18Â °C (0Â °F) Calcium magnesium acetate (CMA) Calcium carbonate CaCO3, magnesium carbonate MgCO3, and acetic acid CH3COOH -9 C(15 F) Safest for concrete vegetation Works better to prevent re-icing than as ice remover Magnesium chloride MgCl2 -15 C(5 F) Melts ice faster than sodium chloride Attracts moisture Potassium acetate CH3COOK -9 C(15 F) Biodegradable Corrosive Potassium chloride KCl -7 C(20 F) Fertilizer Damages concrete Sodium chloride (rock salt, halite) NaCl -9 C(15 F) Keeps sidewalks dry Corrosive, damages concrete vegetation Urea NH2CONH2 -7 C(20 F) Fertilizer Agricultural grade is corrosive Factors That Affect Which Salt to Choose While some salts are more effective at melting ice than others, that doesnt necessarily make them the best choice for a certain application. Sodium chloride is used for ice cream makers because its inexpensive, readily available, and non-toxic. Yet, sodium chloride (NaCl) is avoided for salting roads and sidewalks because the sodium can accumulate and upset the electrolyte balance in plants and wildlife, plus it can corrode automobiles. Magnesium chloride melts ice more quickly than sodium chloride, but it attracts moisture, which can lead to slick conditions. Selecting a salt to melt ice depends on its cost, availability, environmental impact, toxicity, and reactivity, in addition to its optimal temperature.

Essay about Als Outline - 1145 Words

SPC2608 Section # September 18, 2011 Title: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Topic: The unknowns of ALS Specific Purpose: To inform my audience on being aware of ALS. Thesis Statement: INTRODUCTION Attention Material: Have you ever heard of ALS, better known as Lou Gehrig’s disease? For many people, ALS is a disorder that they may not know much about. I never heard of it either until my father was diagnosed with this disease in 2006. Because there is no known cure, it is important to detect this disease early, so that proper treatments and preparation can be done before it’s too late. Thesis Statement: ALS is a disease that is terminal, non-curable and can be hereditary or not.†¦show more content†¦In some people with ALS, the parts of the brain that allow us to think, remember, and learn also are affected by the disease (Labby). C. Strictly speaking, ALS involves degeneration and death of both upper and lower motor neurons. While most patients have clear loss of both types of motor neurons, some patients have greater loss of upper motor neurons, while other patients have greater loss of lower motor. These differences do not change the diagnosis. In these circumstances, the more general term ‘motor neuron disease’ is appropriate (MDA). D. According to the MDA (Muscular Dystrophy Association), the diagnosis of ALS is a clinical diagnosis, meaning there is no specific test for it. Often, tests will be administered to rule out illnesses with similar symptoms. These may include an MRI of the brain or spinal cord, an electromyography (EMG) study of nerve and muscle function, and a variety of blood and urine tests. (Transition: â€Å"Now that we know a little about what ALS is, let’s talk a little bit about who can get ALS†.) II. Who can be affected by ALS. A. Although this disease can strike anyone, it is extremely rare in kids. According to the ALS Association, most people who develop Lou Gehrigs disease are adults between 40 and 70, but younger and or older people can develop this disease. People of all races and ethnic backgrounds are affected. ALS is aShow MoreRelatedLawrence Wrights The Looming Tower Essay1664 Words   |  7 Pagesattack on a country with the world’s strongest military and what led to their focus to attack the Untied States: In short, who attacked us, and why do they hate us? The Untied States formed a bi-partisan 9/11 Commission was formed to trace the roots of Al-Qa’ida, investigate the history of the 19 hijackers, examine missed opportunities of law enforcement officials to avert the disaster, and make recommendations to clean up the faulty incoherent intelligence-gathering operation. 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Case Study Clinical Practice Guidelines

Question: Case study on "Clinical Practice Guidelines". Answer: Introduction Clinical Practice Guidelines is a document that guides the decisions to be taken for the carrying out diagnosis and treatment I the health care area. Stroke is a condition that affects millions of people in a year. The clinical guidelines for stroke are improved so as to provide optimum qualitative care to the patients (Gadhia et al., 2010). The clinical guidelines provide how to make emergency decisions, how to prevent re-occurrence of stroke, rehabilitation procedure, and care after the patient becomes fine. In the below paragraphs the nursing version of the clinical practice guideline for stroke management 2010 would be appraised. The nursing interventions are based on assessing patients condition, listening to the worries and discomforts, providing medications, and reporting to the health professionals in case of emergencies. In the case study, Mary is transferred to the rehabilitation unit with her baby after 12 weeks of the emergency condition. The clinical practice guidelines for rehabilitation focus on impairment, activity, and participation level (Brouwers et al., 2010). The strategy behind this is to study how much patient has recovered from the after effects of stroke basically aphasia. The guidelines says the nurse has to assess the amount of weakness or pain the patient is having, how easily is the patient doing the daily activities, how much is the patients mobility level and most importantly the nurse has to help the patient in their daily activities or fulfill their other needs. In the case study, Mary is walking still with assistance. According to the clinical guidelines Mary has to be assisted in her activities of daily living (Jauch et al., 2013). The nurse along with the team should be provided Mary the occupational therapy and physiotherapy for at least 2 to 3 hours of therapy in a week. The CPG says the nurse along with the team has to go for a constraint-induced movement therapy for the upper limbs functioning. Mary cant even eat her food that suggests she has to go for the constraint-induced movement therapy. The guidelines are to be followed effectively to help the patient achieve mobility; however intense therapies are still to be avoided for certain weeks to months. For Mary, according to the clinical guidelines a multidisciplinary team consisting of physiotherapist and dietician would surely help. It is because to help the patient attain the normal life back and also a healthy body with help of right food. The nurse along with her team should provide all the treatments that bring Mary back to her normal life. The strategy to involve multi disciplinary team as per the clinical practice guideline brings about fruitful results in patients by improving the after affects of the stroke. In some cases, the patient losses his mental ability or becomes very anxious and fear full than the clinical practice guidelines suggest to bring upon a psychiatrist to help the patient reduce his/her fears and anxieties (Yan Hui-Chan, 2009). The strategy helps to bring back the patient to the normal mental level. But in some cases, it is seen the patient and their families are reluctant to carry out any appointments with psychiatrist due to the perception that they are mentally all fine. The next nursing intervention according to clinical practice guideline is of communication. In case of Mary, the nurse should assess her speech pattern. Any kind of slurred speech or difficulty in speech has to be noted and examined to provide effective therapy (Yen et al., 2008). The CPG says because in many cases the stroke patient verbal efficiency is impaired due to loss of blood supply to the brain. The verbal impairment depends on the severity of stroke. The therapy should aim to recover the verbal impairment within the recovery phase. A speech therapist is to be appointed for the patient in such cases. In case of Mary, she does not have so much of verbal problem. It should also be checked that the patient should not find difficult to swallow or chew his/her food. Any difficulty should be assessed appropriately (Boysen, 2012). Patients of stroke face one more major difficulty that is weakness. In case of Mary, same thing can be seen her left arm and left leg were weak. Although she has gain little amount of strength but, still she is finding difficult to attain the daily activities. The clinical practice guidelines suggest strength training in such cases (Furie et al., 2011). The reason behind this is it provides effortless muscle contraction, electrical stimulation, progressive resistive exercise, muscle re-education, and mental exercise. The nurse intervention is here to motivate the patient to attain the strength training exercises. The nurse should teach her how to carry it out and what will be the benefits of it. The nurse can also initiate little amount of exercises like moving hand to make a circle, moving legs up and down (Cumming et al., 2011). These small amounts of exercises will help patient by increasing the confidence to go for other therapies and exercises. Additional nursing intervention according to the clinical practice guidelines are the assessment and assistance in physical activities. Mary needs assistance to do all the physical activities. The clinical practice guidelines for stroke suggests that physical activities like sitting, standing, and standing up, and walking needs to be assisted (Wendel-Vos et al, 2014). The nurse should help Mary to carry out all these physical activities. For example the nurse should hold her while Mary is standing up and help her to walk by holding her sideways. For Mary conventional walking should be started. Additionally cueing of cadence, mechanical assisted gait, and virtual reality training is suggested as per the clinical practice guideline should be carried out for Mary under supervision of the nurse (Pound, Gompertz, Ebrahim, 2008). The nurse should provide support and encouragement to the patient at all times when they are carrying out the physical activities. The physical activities assess ment is must to be carried out. The nurse should provide all the measures that aids in strengthening the limb activities. Mental support and satisfaction is the other most important need of the patient for recovery and rehabilitation. The clinical practice guidelines suggests that the nurse should be at all times provide support to the patient, active listener to the needs and discomforts of the patient, and should satisfy and educate her about the medical procedures. Mary is a new mother and she is young. Thus, Mary needs a lot mental support and encouragement. The nurse should encourage Mary by words like everything is fine dont worry, enjoy motherhood I am her to help you. As she is a new mother the nurse should also help her to take care of her child, explain her things which she is finding difficult (Young Forster, 2007). The nurse should also be patient and provide Mary the mental satisfaction. The mental satisfaction can be provided to her by explaining her whole medical procedure. This will not only motivate her but, will also help to carry out the therapies and medical treatment effectively. Mary practice Maori heritage so there are some social and culture beliefs regarding the health care services. In Maori heritage, it is seen people visit the general practitioners are far less as compared to others. In their heritage the children and adult go for medical health services but the adult visit to GPs is far less. To access services, people must first be aware that the services are available and that they are needed. Evidence suggests that many Pacific peoples are often unaware of the government services available to them. This demonstrates ineffective communication by health information services and providers. The nurse that is taking care of Mary should educate her about all the services that are available for the stroke patients, the new mothers and the new born babies. The CPG guidelines suggest the recovery and rehabilitation knowledge should be given to all the stroke patients (Barnett, Smith, Cumming, 2009). The strategy is to make aware the patient of recovery pro cess and improve their health in a short time to lead a normal life again. The nurse should teach Mary and make her equipped with all the facilities available for her who are generally not known by the people of the Maori heritage due to health literacy or any other factors. Another major drawback of Maori heritage relating to the health services is not going for preventive services especially in adults. Lack of cultural competence is the causes (Price et al., 2009). The Maori people dont opt for preventive measures like vaccinations, preventive medicines. This may be due to health illiteracy or financial problems but, is seen in many people of this heritage. Mary is also from the same heritage so she should be made aware of all the preventive services like immunization for herself and for her baby too (Starfield, 2011). The nurse should make her aware about the screening programs and preventive measures that may associate to the diet to reduce the risk of re-occurrence of stroke. The clinical practice guidelines for stroke management suggest effective preventive measures are to be taken by the health staff and the patient and their family are to be made aware of all the preventive and health management measures related to health. This decision would sur ely improve health and reduce the re-occurrence of stroke. Conclusion Health is strongly influenced by a broad range of cultural, social, economic, and environmental factors. In general, people with fewer socio-economic resources tend to have poorer health outcomes due to a combination of reduced material resources, greater exposure to health risks and behaviors, greater psychosocial stress, and reduced access to health services. Mary is from a Maori heritage that is not so inclined towards healthy well-being. The clinical practice guidelines suggest preventive, educational, as well as medical care for Mary and her baby. The CPG guidelines are very effective for stroke management. They should be carried out in rehabilitation and recovery of the patient to bring optimum health benefit. The nurse should make the decisions and carry out the medical care as per the guidelines. The nurse can improve Marys quality of life if she follows the proper recovery and rehabilitation procedure. At the end, it can be seen the clinical practice guideline are apt to bri ng about the improvement in patients health and bringing about a healthy well-being. References Barnett, P., Smith, J., Cumming, J. (2009). The Roles and Functions of Primary Health Organisations., Wellington: Health Services Research Centre Boysen, G. (2012). Stroke scores and scales. Cerebrovasc Dis 2012;2:239-47. Brouwers, M. C., Kho, M. E., Browman, G. P., Burgers, J. S., Cluzeau, F., Feder, G., Zitzelsberger, L. (2010). AGREE II: advancing guideline development, reporting and evaluation in health care. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal = Journal De L'association Medicale Canadienne, 182(18). Cumming, T.B., Thrift, A.G., Collier, J.M., et al. (2011). Very early mobilization after stroke fast-tracks return to walking: further results from the phase II AVERT randomized controlled trial. Stroke;42:153-58. Furie, K.L., Kasner, S.E., Adams, R.J., et al. (2011). Guidelines for the prevention of stroke in patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American heart association/ American stroke association. Stroke;42:227-76 Gadhia, J., Starkman, S., Ovbiagele, B, et al. (2010). Assessment and improvement of figures to visually convey benefit and risk of stroke thrombolysis. Stroke;41:300-06. Jauch, E.C., Saver, J.L., Adams, H.P. et al. (2013). Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. Starfield B. (2011). The hidden inequity in health care. International Journal for Equity in Health, 10: 15-10.1186/1475-9276-10-15 Pound, P., Gompertz, P., Ebrahim, S. (2008). A patient-centred study of the consequences of stroke. Clin Rehabil, 12(4), 338347. Price, C.J., Blacker, D.J., Grimley, R.S., et al. (2009b). National survey of management of transient ischaemic attack in Australia: Take Immediate Action. Med J Aust, 191(1), 1720. Wendel-Vos, G.C.W., Schuit, A.J., Feskens, E.J.M., et al. (2014). Physical activity and stroke. A meta-analysis of observational data. Int J Epidemiol, 33(4), 787798 Yan, T., Hui-Chan, C.W. (2009). Transcutaneous electrical stimulation on acupuncture points improves muscle function in subjects after acute stroke: A randomized controlled trial. J Rehabil Med, 41(5), 312316. Yen, C.L., Wang, R.Y., Liao, K.K., et al. (2008). Gait training induced change in corticomotor excitability in patients with chronic stroke. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 22(1), 2230 .Young, J. Forster, A. (2007). Review of stroke rehabilit.

Should Freedom of Speech be absolute or limited Essays - Censorship

Should Freedom of Speech be absolute or limited? I have chosen to research "Freedom of Speech" rights in Australia and around the globe. The reason I have chosen to research this issue is that it has been a topic of debate for decades. The limitations of Freedom of Speech vary within different nations. In America, there is a "First Amendment". This amendment allows freedom of religion, speech, the press, assembly and petition. In Australia, there is no "First Amendment" equivalent, there is an implied Freedom of Speech. However, this law only protects freedom of political speech. It acts as a shield against governmental prosecution, not private prosecution. The reason I have chosen to research this topic is that I want to see whether Freedom of Speech is contingent on other factors in a society (governmental and cultural values). Article 19 of the "Universal Declaration of Human Rights" states that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Freedom House is a reliable Non-Governmental Organisation that conducts research on democracy, political freedom and human rights. This organisation annually assesses every country on these liberties. Freedom House will be one of my sources for this research project. Freedom House also rates these countries out of 100 as an aggregate score of freedoms. I will be using it to assess the Freedom of Speech and expression within Australia. Australia's aggregate score is 98/100. 0 is "not free at all" and 100 is "very free". Australia, has prosecuted many people against their Freedom of Speech rights. Since Australia doesn't have an explicit clause on the Freedom of Speech, people are much more vulnerable to governmental suits. In 2006, an author delivered a public address about current social issues without a permit. The police officers present, didn't arrest him at the time but videotaped him. The author was arrested for delivering a public speech without a permit. Only 13% of the world's population enjoys free press. Australia's Freedom of Press score was 22/100, 0 being the "most free" and 100 being "not free at all". Overall, Australia has a very dependable score, however, in the recent years there has been a constant threat to the press on what they can report. During March 2015, the Parliament created a new law that required all the internet and mobile phone providers to track and save all buyers' metadata. Many journalists argued that this prevents the full freedom of the media, as they cannot securely interact with their sources due to the excessive surveillance. In 2015, the Government also restricted any media access to immigration detention centres. In terms of Internet Freedom, Australia scores 21/100. 0 being the "most free" and 100 being "not free at all". There have been many breaches of the Freedom of the Net. The government can access anyone's metadata without a warrant, causing concern to many private citizens. 84% of Australians have access to the net. According to Amnesty International, three-quarters of governments in the world are restricted from freedom of expression. One-third of governments lock up prisoners of conscience. 58% of countries conduct unfair trials, due to corruption. My overall conclusion is that Freedom of Speech is a very complex issue. It is very difficult to remain impartial when deciding whether a past case was infringing on Freedom of Speech rights or just plainly offensive. My own reflection on this issue is that the government can't keep deciding what is free speech and what isn't. The current laws regarding Freedom of Speech in Australia act more like "smokescreens". These "smokescreens" tell the citizens that they cannot be prosecuted by the Government for anything they say, yet they can be prosecuted as demonstrated in multiple federal cases. I personally believe that this issue is controversial because of the use and abuse of it. Different people value different things, some people value honesty and some people value peace. Therefore, I believe it's very hard to decide "should Freedom of Speech be absolute or limited?" I believe that Freedom of Speech should have some restrictions. In many cases, such as child pornography, it isn't a Freedom of Speech right, it's an abuse on another person's right and health. Freedom of Speech also shouldn't be absolute